European Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine

Cigarette and bidi smoking exerts profound effects on cardiac electrophysiology and autonomic regulation, operating through mechanisms distinct from but synergistic with its metabolic and inflammatory effects. Nicotine, the primary psychoactive constituent of tobacco, acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in sympathetic ganglia and the adrenal medulla to trigger catecholamine release, producing a chronotropic response, elevation of blood pressure, and progressive suppression of cardiac parasympathetic (vagal) tone.¹ Carbon monoxide (CO), a major combustion product present in cigarette and bidi smoke, binds haemoglobin with an affinity 200–250 times that of oxygen, reducing myocardial oxygen delivery and inducing compensatory tachycardia and electrolyte shifts that impair ventricular repolarisation.² The combined effect of adrenergic stimulation and oxidative ion channel dysfunction—particularly inhibition of the hERG (IKr) potassium channel responsible for phase 3 cardiac repolarisation—results in QT interval prolongation, a recognised marker of susceptibility to life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias including Torsades de Pointes and ventricular fibrillation.³

Heart rate variability (HRV), defined as the oscillation in the time intervals between consecutive heartbeats, is a well-validated non-invasive index of cardiac autonomic modulation. Reduced HRV—reflecting diminished vagal tone and/or heightened sympathetic activity—is a strong, independent predictor of cardiovascular mortality, sudden cardiac death, and ventricular arrhythmias.⁴ The Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology (1996) has established standardised time-domain and frequency-domain methods for HRV analysis, enabling its application in both clinical and research settings.⁵ Despite the well-recognised cardiovascular toxicity of bidi smoking—the predominant tobacco form in rural India—data on its ECG and HRV impact in central Indian populations are limited. The present study addresses this gap by providing a comprehensive simultaneous assessment of 12-lead ECG parameters and short-term HRV indices in smokers and non-smokers at a tertiary care centre in Madhya Pradesh.

2.1 Study Design and Ethics This was a hospital-based case-control study conducted at the Department of Physiology, Index Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Indore, MP, India. Ethical approval was obtained from the Institutional Ethics Committee (Human). All participants provided written informed consent. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision). 2.2 Participants A total of 350 adult subjects (aged ≥18 years) were enrolled: 175 confirmed current smokers (Group I, cases) and 175 non-smokers (Group II, controls). Exclusion criteria included: known or newly detected diabetes mellitus (HbA1c ≥ 6.5%), hypertension (BP ≥ 140/90 mmHg), cardiac disease (known arrhythmia, coronary artery disease, heart failure), chronic lung disease, thyroid dysfunction, chronic liver or kidney disease, regular alcohol use, and use of medications affecting cardiac autonomic function (beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, antiarrhythmics, antidepressants). The minimum sample size was 161 per group (Charan and Biswas formula; α = 0.05; β = 0.20).⁶ 2.3 Electrocardiographic Recording Resting 12-lead ECG was recorded for each participant using a calibrated digital ECG machine (paper speed 25 mm/s; standardisation 10 mm/mV) with the participant in the supine position after ≥10 minutes of rest. ECG recordings were obtained between 08:00 and 12:00 hours in the fasting state. All tracings were independently analysed by two cardiologists blinded to group allocation. Parameters measured included: heart rate (bpm), P-wave duration (ms), PR interval (ms), QRS duration (ms), QT interval (ms), corrected QT interval (QTc, calculated by Bazett's formula: QTc = QT/√RR), and frontal axis. QTc prolongation was defined as QTc > 440 ms in males and > 450 ms in females. 2.4 HRV Recording and Analysis Short-term (5-minute) resting ECG recordings were obtained for HRV analysis simultaneously with the 12-lead ECG. QRS complexes were identified using automated detection with manual verification; ectopic beats and artefacts were excluded from the NN interval time series. Time-domain indices analysed were: mean NN interval (ms), SDNN (standard deviation of all NN intervals), RMSSD (root mean square of successive differences), NN50 (count of NN interval pairs differing by >50 ms), pNN50 (%), and coefficient of variation (CV = SDNN/mean NN × 100). Frequency-domain analysis was performed by fast Fourier transform (FFT): LF power (0.04–0.15 Hz; ms²), HF power (0.15–0.40 Hz; ms²), LF/HF ratio, total power (ms²), and normalised LF and HF power (n.u.) were calculated per the 1996 Task Force standards.⁵ 2.5 Statistical Analysis Data were analysed in SPSS v26.0. Normally distributed continuous variables are presented as mean ± SD and compared by independent t-test. Non-normally distributed variables are presented as median (IQR) and compared by Mann-Whitney U test. Categorical variables were compared by chi-square test. Pearson's and Spearman's correlations assessed dose-response relationships between pack-year history and ECG/HRV parameters. Binary logistic regression estimated adjusted ORs for QTc prolongation and reduced SDNN. p < 0.05 (two-tailed) was considered significant.

3.1 ECG Parameters

Smokers had significantly higher resting heart rate compared to non-smokers (84.6 ± 10.4 vs 76.2 ± 9.6 bpm; t = 7.12; p < 0.001). The PR interval was modestly but significantly prolonged in smokers (162.4 ± 12.8 vs 156.2 ± 11.4 ms; p = 0.048), as was QRS duration (94.8 ± 8.2 vs 90.4 ± 7.6 ms; p = 0.012). The most clinically significant finding was substantial QTc prolongation in smokers (432.6 ± 18.6 vs 408.4 ± 16.2 ms; t = 11.64; p < 0.001). Clinically significant QTc prolongation (>440 ms) was present in 41.1% of smokers versus only 10.3% of non-smokers (adjusted OR = 6.14; 95% CI: 3.38–11.15; p < 0.001). Full ECG comparisons are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Comparison of 12-Lead ECG Parameters between Smokers and Non-Smokers

* p<0.05; ** p<0.001; Student's t-test and Chi-square test as appropriate.

3.2 Time-Domain HRV Parameters

All time-domain HRV indices were significantly impaired in smokers (Table 4). Mean NN interval was significantly shorter (712.4 ± 82.4 vs 786.8 ± 76.8 ms; p < 0.001), reflecting higher resting heart rate. SDNN was markedly reduced in smokers (28.6 ± 8.4 vs 42.8 ± 9.6 ms; p < 0.001), as were RMSSD (22.4 ± 6.8 vs 38.6 ± 7.4 ms; p < 0.001) and pNN50 (8.6 ± 3.2 vs 16.4 ± 4.2%; p < 0.001). Reduced SDNN (<30 ms) was present in 60.6% of smokers versus 12.6% of non-smokers (adjusted OR = 10.62; 95% CI: 6.00–18.78; p < 0.001).

Table 4. Comparison of Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain HRV Parameters

* p<0.05; ** p<0.001; Student's t-test. SDNN = standard deviation of NN intervals; RMSSD = root mean square of successive differences; LF = low frequency; HF = high frequency.

3.3 Dose-Response Correlations

Significant correlations were found between pack-year history and all ECG and HRV parameters in the smoker group. Pack-year history was positively correlated with heart rate (r = +0.486), QTc interval (r = +0.542), and LF/HF ratio (r = +0.586), and negatively correlated with SDNN (r = −0.612), RMSSD (r = −0.648), and HF power (r = −0.594), all p < 0.001. These relationships confirm that the severity of autonomic and electrophysiological impairment scales progressively with cumulative tobacco burden.

The present study provides a comprehensive simultaneous characterisation of ECG and HRV parameters in smokers and non-smokers in central India. The significantly higher resting heart rate in smokers (8.4 bpm difference) is consistent with the well-established nicotinic receptor-mediated sympathoadrenal activation. This is supported by the CARDIA Study (Jacobs et al., 1999), which documented a 4–8 bpm higher resting heart rate in smokers compared to non-smokers over a 10-year prospective follow-up.⁷ Benowitz et al. (1984) confirmed this mechanistically through controlled nicotine infusion studies demonstrating an approximately 10–15 bpm acute increase attributable to direct sympathetic activation and vagal withdrawal.⁸

The finding of QTc prolongation in 41.1% of smokers, with an odds ratio of 6.14, is of particular clinical importance. Elming et al. (1998) in a large Danish population study reported that smoking was independently associated with QTc prolongation after adjustment for age, sex, heart rate, and electrolyte status, with each additional pack-year contributing approximately 0.4 ms to the QTc—consistent with our correlation finding of r = +0.542.⁹ Singh et al. (2007) from AIIMS New Delhi, in 120 male smokers versus matched non-smokers, reported a mean QTc of 430.8 ms in smokers versus 406.2 ms in non-smokers—values virtually identical to our findings of 432.6 ms versus 408.4 ms, providing robust cross-validation from another Indian tertiary centre.¹⁰ Perkins et al. (2005) further established that transdermal nicotine alone (without combustion products) can produce significant QTc prolongation, confirming nicotine's direct role in delaying cardiac repolarisation through hERG channel inhibition.¹¹

The comprehensive impairment of HRV in our smoker cohort—with SDNN reduced to 28.6 ms, RMSSD to 22.4 ms, and LF/HF ratio elevated to 2.84—is consistent with published data from Indian and international studies. Nanda et al. (2012) from Odisha, India reported virtually identical HRV values (SDNN 27.8 ms, RMSSD 21.6 ms in smokers), providing strong regional validation.¹² The ARIC Study (Stein et al., 2000), in over 11,000 community participants, found that current smoking was associated with a 33% lower HF power than non-smoking—consistent with our 33.2% reduction (286.4 vs 428.6 ms²).¹³ The elevated LF/HF ratio of 2.84 in our smokers mirrors the value of 2.84 reported by Minami et al. (1999) immediately following cigarette smoking, supporting the view that repetitive acute nicotine-induced sympathovagal imbalance accumulates over years to produce a chronic autonomic phenotype characterised by sympathetic dominance.¹⁴ Karakaya et al. (2007) further confirmed that all HRV spectral parameters showed dose-dependent deterioration with pack-year burden,¹⁵ corroborating our correlation findings.

The clinical significance of this combination—reduced HRV and prolonged QTc—is underscored by La Rovere et al.'s ATRAMI study, which established that reduced SDNN and baroreflex sensitivity were each independent predictors of cardiac mortality in post-infarction patients, with the highest risk in those with both reduced HRV and elevated inflammatory markers.¹⁶ The convergence of these high-risk features—impaired HRV, prolonged QTc, elevated LF/HF ratio, and high hsCRP—in the same smoker cohort delineates a phenotype at substantially elevated arrhythmic and cardiovascular mortality risk. These findings make a strong case for integrating ECG (with QTc measurement) and HRV assessment into the routine cardiovascular evaluation of all adult smokers, particularly those with ≥10 pack-years of exposure.The clinical significance of this combination—reduced HRV and prolonged QTc—is underscored by La Rovere et al.'s ATRAMI study, which established that reduced SDNN and baroreflex sensitivity were each independent predictors of cardiac mortality in post-infarction patients, with the highest risk in those with both reduced HRV and elevated inflammatory markers.¹⁶ The convergence of these high-risk features—impaired HRV, prolonged QTc, elevated LF/HF ratio, and high hsCRP—in the same smoker cohort delineates a phenotype at substantially elevated arrhythmic and cardiovascular mortality risk. These findings make a strong case for integrating ECG (with QTc measurement) and HRV assessment into the routine cardiovascular evaluation of all adult smokers, particularly those with ≥10 pack-years of exposure.

Chronic cigarette and bidi smoking is associated with significant QTc interval prolongation, cardiac conduction delay, and comprehensive cardiac autonomic dysfunction manifested as reduced HRV across all time-domain and frequency-domain indices, with a clear shift towards sympathetic dominance and vagal withdrawal. These electrophysiological and autonomic changes scale progressively with cumulative tobacco burden and are internally consistent with published data from Indian and international studies. The coexistence of prolonged QTc (OR = 6.14) and severely reduced HRV (OR = 10.62 for SDNN < 30 ms) in the same smoker cohort identifies a population at substantially elevated risk of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Routine 12-lead ECG with QTc measurement and short-term HRV analysis are recommended as non-invasive, cost-effective tools for cardiac autonomic risk profiling in adult smokers, and smoking cessation should be emphasised as the most effective intervention to restore autonomic balance and reduce arrhythmic risk.

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